THE BRONZE AGE
HOW BRONZE AGE PERVERT CHARMED THE FAR RIGHT
The Bronze Age age urban culture obtained in Harappa located Pakistan Punjab was the great discovery. In 1853 the British engineer Alexander Cunningham witnessed the seal of the Harappa culture. A total of six letters inscribed above the seal, Taurus and a total of six letters, but he did not understand its importance much later when the archaeological Dayaram Shani began his Harappa excavation in 1921 AD. At the same time, historian, Rkhldas Banerjee, excavated Mohenjo-Daro in sindhi both discovered the character of death and other ancient relics, indicating a developed civilization.
M.S. Wats carved out Harappa from 1926 to 1934 AD. From 1934 AD John Marshall took charge of the excavations of Mohenjo-Daro.
Martyr wheeler worked a hard life excavation of Harappa in 1946 AD. Thus by excavations before independence and partition many sites in the Harrapan culture where bronze was used were brought to light.
The archaeologist from both India and Pakistan in the time since independence carved out Harappa and related sites. Surajbhan M.K. dhavalikar, J.B Lal, S.R Rao, V.K. Thapar, R.S. Bisht and some other archaeologist worked him in Gujarat Haryana and Rajasthan in connection with.
F.A Khan excavated a site called Kottheji under the Indus valley in Pakistan and M.R. Mughal paid greater attention to the excavation of the Hakira and Prake-Hakira cultures. A.H. Dani excavated the tomb of Gandhara in the north west frontier region of Pakistan. The us British French and Itlayn archaeology experts worked in many places including Harappa.
The Indus or harappa culture is older than many copper stone cultures that have been described earlier but it is much more developed than those. This culture arose in the northwest part of the Indian subcontinent in a copper stone background.
Its name was harappa culture because it was first found out from a modern site called harappa, located in the province of Pakistan in 1921. From the Indus expressions are places that form the central zone of the harappan culture. As a result, that culture matured into the Indus and punjab into urban civilization.
The centre site of this mature harappa culture falls mainly in the Indus valley in punjab and sindh. From here it extended to the south and east and thus under the harappan culture, punjab was not only a part of sind and baluchistan but also gujarat as a frontier part of rajasthan haryana and western uttar pradesh. Its spread was from jammu in the north to the mouth of narmada river in the south and from makrana beach in west to meerut in north east. This entire area is of the shape of the triangle. its entire area is about 1299600 sq km of. This area is larger than that of Pakistan than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In the third and second centuries, the area of any culture was larger than that of the harappa culture.
So far about 2800 sites of harappan culture have been explored in this sub continent. Some of these are of the early stage of harappan culture. some are of mature stage and some are of north stage. But the number of mature sites is limited and only 7 can be called a city. Of these 2 were the most important cities in punjab, in harappa and sind, mohenjodaro.
Both is located in pakistan. both were 483 kilometers away from each other and sindhu was connected by river. The third nagar was at both the site of Chunhodro at around 130 km south from mohenjodaro in sindhi. And fourth town was at lothal site over the bay of khandala in gujarat. The fifth town was in the district of hisar in north rajasthan at kalibanga i. e.
Black bangles and sixth town banaras haryana. Like kaligbanga it also has two cultural phases seen the harappan east and the harappan age. The chauleo roads of raw bricks and remains of morios belong to The Times of the harappan civilization. There are visions of mature and advanced harappan culture at these six sites. In the sutkangedor and surkotda, there also appears to be a mature stage of this culture.
The two are characterized by the presence of an each citadel of cities. Besides this, the dholavira in the kutch region of gujarat also has a fort and at this site the three stages of harappan culture can be found. This three states are also found in rakshiagarhi which is situated in haryana on ghaggar river and is bigger than dholavira.
North harappan state is found at rangpur and rosari sites in the kathiawar peninsula of gujarat.
The harappan culture was characterised by its urban planning system. Both harappa and mohanjodaro cities had their own forts where the ruling classes lived. Every town had one of the lower cities outside the fort, where the common people lived in brick houses. The unique thing about buildings in these cities was that it was arranged like mesh (gred). The roads made one another complete and the cities were divided into several sections. This thing was applicable to all the Indus settlements whether they were small or large. Other fine buildings are characteristic of both harappa and mohenjodaro. The other is even more rich in buildings. His monuments show that the rulers there were the ultimate masters in mobilising and tax collections.
Mohenjodaro perhaps has the most important public place. the spacious bathrooms, whose reservoir is in the mound of durg. This is beautiful example of architectural of two. it is 11.88 m long 7.01 m wide and 2.43 m deep. Stairs to ground at both ends are armpit change rooms are bathrooms duty is made of baked bricks. nearby room is big well. From this the water was poured out into a tank. In the corner of the tank the issue is mouth by which water flows down to the drain. It is reported to have been made for huge bathrooms religion ritual bath that has been necessary in every religious act in india.
The biggest building of mohanjodaro is the granola keeping granola which is 45.71 m long and 15.23 m wide. But in the harappan durg there are six kothar found on a platform built of bricks. Each kothar is 15.23 m long and 6.0 9 m wide and some 1 m away from the bank of river. The entire area of these 12 units is about 838.1025 square metres approximately as much as the kothar of mohenjodaro. Open floor is to the south of the kottars of harappa and two rows on it have circular pops of brick. Obviously it was used in the use of crop pressing as wheat and barley are found in the cracks in the floor. There are also two roomed barracks in harappa which were perhaps made to remain labourers.
In kalibanga also found bricks platforms in the south part of the city which may be made for kothar. thus it is evident that kothar was important parts of harappa culture.
The use of paved bricks in harappan culture towns is as special as those that sun - dried bricks were used in contemporary Egyptian buildings. The baked bricks in contemporary Mesopotamia were used very extensively.
The drainage system of mohenjodaro was amazing. every small or big houses in almost all cities had courtyards and basins. Many of the homes in kaligbanga had their own homes watered down to the streets, where under them there were morya. Often it was covered with moria tow and stone cilples. in these sacks of roads the menholes were also made. Relics of roads and morios are also found in bnabali. Overall bathing houses and system of morios are unique. the harappa's exit system is even more eccentric so. Perhaps no other civilization of the Bronze Age gave so much importance to health and sanitation as people of harappa.
However, the location of the harappan inhabitants living in the harappan lothal seems to have been different, the people of lothal had grown rice at 1800 b. c., a part of which has been found there. Even in mohenjodaro and harappa and in kalibanga the grains were stored in large houses. Perhaps grains were collected from the farmers as revenue and he used to repay remuneration and be credited to kothar for work in times of crisis. This thing we can call to visions of cities of Mesopotamia, Where wages paid in barley. Firstly the credit for generating cotton is the people of sindhu civilization. Because cotton was first produced in the sindhu region only so people of Greece called it sindon which came out of the term sindhu.
Harappa resident domesticated a lot of cattle even though dependent on agriculture. He reared oxen cow buffalo goat sheep and pigs. Cat also grew up. Dog and cat both have got footprints. They donkey and camel also carried the goods on them from one place to another. The existence of the horse was indicated by a suspicious figure found at the top of mohenjodaro and at lothal. Which is known as terracotta. There are reports of the encounter with horse remains at surkotda, located to the west of gujarat, and that 2000 were reported to have been reported so far east but the identity message was in transit.
Whatever it may be, it is clear that the harappan civilization was not hourse - centric neither the bones of the horse nor its forms have been found in the early and mature stage of the harappan culture.
The people of harappa knew the elephant; they were also familiar with the gande; the contemporary sumer towns of Mesopotamia produced grains like these; and their pets were also the same. But the harappans in gujarat used to grow rice and domesticated elephants. Both of these do not apply to the city inhabitants of Mesopotamia.
The harappan culture is of the age. People of this culture used many stone tools and implements but were well acquainted with the construction and use of bronze. Normally bronze was made by mixing tin in copper. But not one of the two metal was easily available to people of harappa so bronze tools in harappa are not abal. Impurities from copper minerals seem to have been replenished from the khetri copper mines of bronj rajasthan, though it could also be transported from baluchistan.
Teen was probably flown from Afghanistan with difficulty though reported to have found some old mines in hazaribagh and bastar. The Indus region today receives very little rainfall than before so it is no longer fertile.
Rich villages and cities here appears from the view that in ancient times it was fertile to the territ. You only 15 cm of rain. a historian from Alexander in 4th century BC sindh was counted among fertile parts of this count. In earlier times the Indus region had more natural plant wealth which caused more rainfall here. Forests were used on a large scale for the purpose of cooking bricks and building them. For long periods of cultivation was extensive and the use of timber for fuel reduced its natural wealth vegetation. Special reason for fertility of this pradesh was perhaps flood coming every year from sindhu river appears from pucca brick walls standing to protect.
The Indus river shed more alluvial soil than the Nile of Egypt and left it in the flood plains. Just as Neil built Egypt and supported the people there, so did the Indus river build and support the people in sindh. People of sindhu civilization sow seeds in flood plains in the month of November and harvest wheat and barley in April before next flood.
No shovel is found here but the ploughs seen in the prak harappa state of kalibanga are estimated to have been cultivated in rajasthan in harappan times. The harappans are the people probably used the wooden hallo to pull this plough the man or vine is not aware. Perhaps stone tools were used to cut the crop. The pattern of building reservoirs surrounded by DAMS has been characteristic of parts of baluchistan and Afghanistan, but it seems that irrigation practices do not occur. The harappa carpet villages, mostly in the flood plains, produced abundant grains which would suffice not only to meet their own needs but also to meet the needs of the urban inhabitants, shilpio merchants and ordinary citizens who did not mean agriculture.
People of sindhu civilization reared grains wheat barley rye pea etc. He cultivated two varieties of wheat and barley. Got in bnabali barley which is of the best variety. Besides these he also grew sesame and mustard. Sites found bronze tools and weapons are teen less in quantity. Yet it is not short of the bronze material that is left.
These objects indicate how the community of kassa ro occupied an important place in the craftsman of the harappan society. They used to make statues and utensils as well as all kinds of tools and weapons. Like axe saws
Knife and spear. Many other important crafts in harappan cities also ran out a piece of cotton cloth made of mohenjodaro and saw cloth imprint on many objects. The weavers were make cotton and woollen cloth. The brickwork giant buildings tell rajgiri was an important work. This also gives the glimpse of the existence of the class of rajgiri. People of harappan also carried out boat making. As will be further pointed out, making clay pawns and making clay puppets was also an important task. The goldsmith made jewellery of silver gold and gems. Gold silver was probably from Afghanistan and gems come from south india. the harappan artisans were also proficient in building dimond. Kumar 's chalk was very popular and harappa was the hallmark of these people. It made the pot smooth and glowing.
Trade in the lives of the people of the Indus civilization was of great significance, not only by the existence of large - scale scandals of food grains in harappan mohenjodaro and lothal, but also by the existence of large tracts of soil, a form of script and human action. The harappan people trade stones, metal, bone, etc within the Indus civilization region but the raw material required for what they made was not available in their towns. They didn 't use metallic COINS in any way. They could do it through exchange.
Their finished goods and possibly the grains carried on the boat and bullock carts to the neighbourhood and they fetch metals instead of those goods. He sailed the ship off the Arabian sea. they were familiar with wheels and solid wheels carts were prevalent in harappa. The harappans seem to have used some or the other kind of coin.
The trade relation of the people of harappa was from a region of rajasthan and also from Afghanistan and Iran. They had set up their commerce colony in north Afghanistan with which their trade runs along central Asia. The trade of their cities ran alongside the cities of dazla farhat territories excavated many harappa mo Mesopotamia and seem. The people of harappan had carried on a distant trade of lajwat mani this gem must surely increase the social prestige of the ruling class. Around 2350 bec. and its forward mesopatamiya records refers to the business relation with meluha. Meluha is the ancient name of sindhu region refers two intermediate trade centres in pura articles of mesopotamia. dilman and makan. It's between Mesopotamia and meluha. Dilman can perhaps be identified by Bahrin of Persia bay that port town awaits thousands of graves dig.
We have no clear impression of the Harapapa political organization but if the cultural unity of the Indus civilization is given attention, such unity will not be possible without any central power. The marvellous persistence of this unit is evident from this that it continues to last for about 600 years. No harappa site has been found at any harappan site unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia. An exception can be huge bathrooms used to wash their bathrooms. Religious beliefs and ideas in harappa is not so it would be wrong to think that harappa had priests ruled as in cities of lower Mesopotamia. It is supposed to indicate that in the north harappan state lothal might have developed a tradition of fire worship in gujarat, but for this temples were neither built nor used. Perhaps the attention of the harappan rulers was not as much towards conquest as commerce and rule of harappa was hand. Be aware that the Indus civilization lacks weapons.
In harappa, an iconoclast woman idol is found in large Numbers. An idol shows a plant emerging from a woman's womb. It is possibly the image of the earth - goddess and it must have been closely associated with the growth and birth of plants. So it seems that the harappan people regarded the earth as a goddess of fertility and worshipped her as egyptians worshipped Neil. But there is nothing that can be said of whether the harappans were matriarchal like the misra.
In Egypt the state property was inherited by females but in harappan society what was the pattern of succession is not known to us.
In some vedic sukto praise the mother earth, but it was not given any prominence. It is only after a long time that this mother goddess has got high position in Hindu religion. Since the sixth century a. d. durga ambala kali candi, and even then, all goddesses like durga abala candi found the place among the puranas and traditions of the adorable goddesses. With the passage of time each village became its own distinct deviya.
WHO INVENT THE PEN ?
Beginning of Neolithic age in west Asia
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